Renewable Natural Resources

Renewable natural resources are those that can be recycled, reproduced or regenerated. These include crops, wild plants, animals, water, air, etc. Centuries of intensive human use, settlements and other land clearings for various developments  have greatly changed the original landscape and thereby destroyed our natural resource base to a great extent. Moreover, the unsustainable use of the world’s natural resources, not only to meet the increasing demand but also to quench his greed, is also depleting the biological resources at an alarming rate. As per the current estimates, the world population has crossed the mark of 6 billion; and is expected to be doubled in less than 50 years. Unless population is controlled and sound resource management policy is implemented throughout the world, majority of human beings below the poverty line, particularly in the third world, will face a difficult life in the coming decades.

The population growth rate of Saudi Arabia is one of the highest in the world. As per the current circumstances, the existing population of 20 million is expected to be doubled by 2040. The rapid growths of human population and economy of the oil rich countries in the Arabian Peninsula and particularly of Saudi Arabia during the last three decades are projected to continue in the coming years. This growth has accelerated and often put pressure on the Kingdom’s renewable resource base.  Since large tracts of vegetation rich areas are to be transformed for meeting the increasing demands of the industrial and agriculture sectors and for the urban development, the small remaining pockets of natural area are vital for future developments. The following paragraphs depict the current status of the wild plant heritage of Saudi Arabia and portray some of the untapped economically important plants.

Although Saudi Arabia is a large country, covering an area of 2, 250,000 sq km, the floristic elements  are limited to a few thousands, in contrast to the rich floras of East African, West Asian and Mediterranean countries. Yet, the prevailing hospitable climate and topography of some parts of the Arabian Peninsula have indeed allowed the entry of many plants from neighbouring countries. However, populations of most of these wild plants on the Peninsular side are in a highly degraded state due to a number of reasons such as the unpredictable climate, lack of sufficient precipitation, meager regeneration,  overgrazing, poor agricultural practices, unsustainable gathering of fuel wood, etc. Recent estimates show that Saudi Arabia contains about 2243 species in 142 families, of which 20% of plants are endangered, about 25% are rare and about 2% are endemic.

Ever since the beginning of civilization, the basic needs required by man like food, clothing and shelter are fulfilled by plants. Economically important plants of Saudi Arabia are very few. Nevertheless, each plant we see around us contains some form of chemical compounds which could be used for the manufacture of some products. Bedouins, the nomadic community of Saudi Arabia, are basically farmers and known for their hardiness and endurance are the real sons of the desert. They are will acquainted with the extremes of the arid land life. For existence and necessity, these nomadic communities had to move from place to place for better pasture land for their herd and to avoid the extreme climate. During such constant movements they were forced to use the natural resources which were available around their dwelling places. But the use of these plants were localized and restricted. The value of one plant in an area largely depends on the skills or culture of the tribal people. A plant used for medicinal or food in one region does not have the same effect or perhaps believed even poisonous in another region. According to one survey conducted on Saudi plants, 98 of them were used or considered edible by Bedouins. Out of these only a few plants such as Malva parviflora, Eruca sativa, Portulaca oleraceaCorchorus olitorius, Lactuca saligna etc. are widely used in these days. Edibility of certain  plants such as Tripleurospermum auriculatum, Rumex vesicarius, etc., is also well known to many people. There are only a few plants which can be eaten whole, either raw or cooked, whereas in most other plants the edible part is either root (Emex spinosa, Scorzonera papposa, Orobanche cernua), stem( Foeniculum vulgare, Sisymbrium irio) or leaves (Launaea nudicaulis, Scorzonera papposa).

 There is another group of plants which is also important to nomadic communites. Acacia gerrardii, Ziziphus spina-christi, Tamarix aphylla, Maerua crassifolia, Acacia raddiana, Juniperus procera etc. were very prominent for the construction of traditional mud houses and tents. Wood of most of these plants are very hard, durable and resistant to termites and water. People used to collect a kind of gum  from A. Seyal for confectionery and for the manufacture of ink. Salvadora persica is another  important plant whose value is widely accepted throughout the world. The compounds present in the wood and root of this plant are acting as a dentrifice and mouth cleanser. A few tooth pastes containing these compounds are also marketed under the trade names, “Meswak” and “Fluroswak”. The resins obtained from species such as Commiphora erythraea, C. kataf, C. myrrha, etc. were a major source of “bdellillium” for the manufacture of perfumes. Acacia spp., Haloxylon persicum, Calligonum comosum, Juniperus spp., Ziziphus spina-christi, Maerua crassifolia, etc. are well known throughout Arabia for their excellent, long and clear burning firewood.

In ancient times, Bedouins used various types herbal plants for curing many ailments. Traditional use of these herbal medicines are still in use at least in some quarters. Artemisia sieberi, Rhus tripatrita (cough), Citrullus colocynthis, Senna italica (Digestive disorders); Cynomorium coccineum, Artemisia judaica (Colic); Capparis spinosa, Peganum harmala, Ochradenus baccatus (Aches in joints, limbs); Anastatica heirochuntica (to ease the pain of delivery) etc. are some of the common medicinal plants used by ‘Bedouins’ in Saudi Arabia.

Rangelands constitute about 70-80% of the total area of Saudi Arabia. These areas are important for the grazing of wild and domesticated herds.  Important pasture plants of the Kingdom’s range lands include Acacia spp., Anabasis setifera, A. articulata, Artemisia sieberi, Astagalus spinosa, Acacia spp. Haloxylon salicornicum , Rhanterium epapposum, Indigofera spinosa,  etc.

All most all plants are useful in one way or the other. The Bedouins utilize wild plants for producing medicines, oils, etc, some of which are essential to their daily existence. The management and utilization of these relatively meagre plant resources of the deserts are one of the impressive aspects of the nomadic communities’ life in the past few decades.

The ethenobotanical resources of Saudi Arabia can be broadly classified into fibre yielding plants, oil-producing plants, timber plants, edible plants and medicinal plants. Juniperus, Prosopis, Tamarix, Ziziphus, etc. were a good source of timber for construction. The use of Salvadora persica roots as tooth-brush, Myrrh from Commiphora,  Henna from Lawsonia inermis, etc. is common even in these days. Reeds such as Phragmites, Typha, Scirpus are still being used more making baskets, mats, etc., although to keep the tradition alive. Pillows have been made from the inflorescence of Typha, Sacharum, Aerva javanica and mats from the fibres of Sansevieria, Dracaena, etc.

Not less than 319 species have been identified in the past decades which have been widely used in Saudi folk medicine. Various essential oils were extracted from species belonging to the Lamiaceae family. Species such as Anastatica hierochuntica, Matricaria aurea, Lawsonia inermis, Mentha spp. Calligonum comosum, Teucrium polium, Withania somnifera, Anagyris foetida, Senna alexandrina, etc. are good sources of medicines for treating various ailments. Scientists have reported the presence of linalool in Lavandula pubescens. It also contains small amount of camphor and large amounts of sesquiterpenes. Microbiological screening also revealed that the oil was active against many microorganisms.  Achillea fragrantissima, a common plant in the central raudhas and northern parts, contains unsaturated fatty acids, giving the characteristic odour. The content of the lipids in the aerial tops is appreciable and may be of economical significance. Analysis on Horwoodia dicksoniae also proved to contain high percentage of volatile oils, which makes the species one of the rare aromatic plants of Brassicaceae. Plectranthus tenuiflorus, Cleome chrysantha, Rosa abyssinica, Artemisia spp. Lavandula dentata and a considerable number of flowers of various plants also contain various types of volatile oils which could be used in perfume or pharmaceutical industries. Moringa peregrina, a tree species in the northwestern Hijaz Mountains is a good source of oil, which could be used as a medicine or as an edible oil.

A significant number of wild plants are remarkable for their variety and  beauty. Gynandrissisyrinchium (Iridaceae), Pancratium tortuosum, Crinum album, Scadoxus multiflorus (Amaryllidaceae), Anthemis deserti, Centaurothamnus maximus  (Asteraceae), Delonix elata, Cadia purpurea (Fabaceae) and a number of other species belonging to Aloe, Caralluma, Duvalia, Euphorbia, Klenia, etc are elegant plants with colourful foliage or flowers.

As many as 98 wild species are reported edible and are eaten in one way or the other. Amaranthus viridis, Rumex vesicarius, Corchorus olitorius, Portulaca oleracea, Lactuca spp., Eruca sativa, Malva parviflora, etc some of the important plants of which the fresh leaves are eaten.

 Some of the economically important plants of Saudi Arabia

Leaves of Hyphaene thebaica, when they are green and fresh, are used to make baskets, mates, etc. The fibre obtained from its leaves was of great value in the past. The baskets and mats made from leaves of this palm were believed to be long lasting, than the baskets made with the leaves of Date palm. Although not as popular as before, the items made from Hyphaene thebaica can still be seen in the markets in and around Jizan. The outer layer of the unripe, green fruit is edible which children of the Tihama region often eat.

The fruits of Ziziphus spina-christi are edible and are a crucial source of nourishment in the past. People engaged in honey production widely cultivate these trees in their premises, as it is important bee forage. Its foliage is also browsed by livestock during extreme dry season. The powdered leaves of this tree have been widely used as a hair wash in Eastern Saudi Arabia and elsewhere and have been considered very effective in strengthening the hair roots and softening hair. The wood was one of the important timbers in the past for the construction of houses and for the manufacture of utensils. Elsewhere in Arabia, remedies prepared from the leaves were prescribed for the removal of impurities from the intestines and were said to be effective for the skin. 

Avicennia marina, a popular mangrove tree seen along the Red Sea coast and Arabian Gulf coast, grows in dense stands in many parts of coastal region, particularly in the southern Tihama and Farasan Islands. It is one of the ecologically important and highly productive littoral biotopes. Mangrove trees grow in extremely hostile conditions such as high salinity formed soils. They not only safeguard the land from erosion but also create more land by gradually pushing the sea back. Besides land protection, the habitat of Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata present in the Farasan Islands are important because it provides breeding and nursery grounds for a variety of organisms. Many terrestrial and aquatic animals find refuge under these trees.  The pneumatothods that stand erect above the water are an ideal site for the breeding of a number of fish, particularly of crabs, shrimps and prawns. It is also believed that Avicennia marina is known for its capacity to remove pollutants from water.  

Dracaena ombet, though not as popular as D. cinnabari of Socotran island and D. draco of Canary Islands, is also important for the local community. Apart from the resin of this plant, the fibre extracted from the leaves is also used to make ropes and threads.  Its trunks were also used for making beehives.  

Moringa peregrina is a deciduous trees with pendulous branches. Fruit is a 30 cm long capsule. Oil obtained from its pods is being used by local people for cooking or for burning. In other countries, extraction from the pods is being used in perfumery, and to treat ailments of stomach, leprosy, pustules on the face and for the relief of itching. 

Cissus quadrangularis  is a perennial climber with succulent quadrangular stem and 3-lobed serrate leaves. Livestock browse the new leaves and growing shoots when hungry but the attractive berries, which look so tempting and succulent, are not edible.  In Oman, the plant was allowed to grow up and over the roofs of houses and animal shelters in order to have a firm matting cover above the grass thatching.

Pandanus odoratissimus is a large shrub with sword-like leaves. Trunks and branches often with stilt (aerial) roots. Leaves thick, toothed, more than a meter long. It is cultivated in many parts of southwestern region, mainly in the premises of houses. The inflorescence is very aromatic and is being sold in the market. In other countries, where it is cultivated commercially, oil is obtained from male flowers.

A. Medicinal plants

Acalypha fruticosa Forssk.         Euphorbiaceae

An extract of leaves is used for treating bee stings.

Achyranthes aspera L.       Amaranthaceae

Crushed roots are used on scorpion bites to ease irritation.

Achillea biebersteinii Afan.         Compositae

An infusion form its leaves is used for the treatment of itching.

Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult.  Apocynaceae

Its sap is used for treating dislocations, painful joints, swellings etc.

Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schults       Amaranthaceae

A paste made from its inflorescence is used for treating bruises.

Ambrosia maritima L.             Compositae

Plant extract is used to relieve spasms.

Anastatica heirochuntica L.        Crucifereae

A solution of dried plant and water is used by women to ease childbirth.

Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) DC.        Boraginaceae

A solution obtained from boiling the whole plant in water is taken as tea to relieve fever.

Artemisia sieberi Besser              Compositae

The whole plant is used as a smoke inhalant to treat various diseases. Leaves are used as an anthelmintic.

Astragalus atropilosus (Hochst.) Bunge     Papilionaceae

Mixture of dried leaves and animal fat is applied to relieve backpain.

Calligonum comosum L’Herit         Polygonaceae

Dried stems and leaves are used against toothache

Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl.        Apocynaceae

Its berries are eaten for colic, menstrual pain

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.      Cucurbitaceae

Leaves, seeds and roots are used to treat insect bits and colic.

Clematis simensis Fresen.          Menispermaceae

Fresh leaves are used as a poultice to treat rheumatic pain.

Conyza incana Willd.             Compositae

The smoke of burned leaves are used to repel insects, also used for relieving muscular pain.

Cynomorium coccineum L.         Cynomoraceae

The fleshy part of the plant is eaten as a laxative.

Dracaena ombet Kotschy & Peyr      Agavaceae

Resin used for treating haemorrhage, skin infections.

Ecbolium virde (Forssk.) Alston          Acanthaceae

Its leaves are used for treating skin rashes.

Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele        Euphorbiaceae

An extract of leaves and roots is used as a laxative

Euryops arabicus Steud.            Compositae

The leaves and stems are used for treating wounds.

Geranium trilophum Boiss.        Geraniaceae

A mixture of ground plant and water is applied on the body to relieve pain.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.                    Papilionaceae

Mixture of powdered rhizome and water or olive oil is used for treating muscle pain.

Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br.

Chewing the leaves of this plant will prevent the ability of the tongue to taste sweet.

Haploplyllum tuberculatum (Frossk.) Fiori          Rutaceae

Leaves are used as a sedative. The juice of leaves is used to strengthen weak muscles.

Indigofera articulata Gouan           Papilionaceae

Soaked roots are chewed to relieve toothache

Lawsonia inermis L.          Lythraceae

Leaves(“Henna”) is widely used by women as a dye.

Matricaria aurea (Loel.) Sch.-Bip.           Compositae

Inflorescence is used for making a tea for all stomach ailments.

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.          Labiatae

Fresh leaves with tea is taken to relieve stomach-ache and head-ache

Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori       Moringaceae

Oil from the seeds is used to relieve headaches, fever

Nepeta deflersiana Schweinf.       Labiatae

A mixture of leaves extract and tea is taken orally to ease stomach problems

Nerium oleander L.              Apocynaceae

An extract from leaves is used for treating bronchitis, and coughs.

Ocimum basilicum L.           Labiatae

Crushed fresh leaves are placed on bruises to avoid infection.

Plectranthus barbatus Andr.              Labiatae

The juice of crushed fresh leaves is used as a deodorant.

Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser & Lack         Compositae

The whole plant is used for treating boils, skin sores

Polycarpaea repans (Forssk.) Aschers. et Schweinf.   Caryophyllaceae

Crushed plant is applied as an antidote against snake bites.

Psiadia punctulata DC.          Compositae

Branches and stems are boiled with water and used to relieve muscle pain.

Rhazya stricta Decaisne      Apocynaceae

Whole plant is used for improving bad breath, chest pain, skin rash.

Ricinus communis L.             Euphorbiaceae

Leaves and roots are used to treat bad breath, toothache etc.

Ruta chalepensis L.                Rutaceae

Leaves are used to cure rheumatism and abdominal colic.

Salvadora persica Garc          .     Salvadoraceae

Stems are used as toothbrush.

Sansevieria ehrenbergii Schweinf. ex Baker      Agavaceae

Juice from the leaves is used for treating blisters

Seidletzia rosmarinus Bunge ex Boiss.       Chenopodiaceae

Its leaves are used as a cleansing agent.

Senecio asirensis Boulos et Wood        Compositae

A decoction made from its leaves is used for treating fevers.

Senna italica Miller             Caesalpiniaceae

A solution made from boiling the leaves in water is used for treating constipation and stomach cramps.

Sisymbrium irio L.                       Cruicifereae

A solution obtained from boiling the seeds in water is used to relieve cold and fever.

Tamarindus indicus L.             Caesalpiniaceae

Fruits are used as a laxative.

Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) Link        Papilionaceae

Ground leaves are used to treat cough.

Teucrium polium L.                 Labiatae

Juice from fresh leaves is applied on cuts and abcesses

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.      Solanaceae

Pounded leaves and roots are used as a poultice.

Ziziphus spina-christi(L.)Desf.            Rhamnaceae

Fruits and seeds are used against dandruff, headache

 B. Edible plants

Amaranthus graecizans L.           Amaranthaceae

            Edible part:  Cooked leaves and stems

Amaranthus viridis L.           Amaranthaceae

            Edible part:  Cooked young stems and leaves

Apium graveolens (L.) Lag.            Umbelliferae

            Young leaves and stems

Avena sativa L.             Gramineae

            Grains

Beta vulgaris L.           Chenopodiaceae

            Cooked roots

Capparis spinosa L.           Capparaceae

            Young, fresh fruits are used to make pickles.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medicus        Cruciferae

            Young leaves and stems

Celtis africana Burm. f.         Ulmaceae

            Fresh fruits

Chenopodium album L.              Chenopodiaceae

Fresh leaves and young shoots

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.           Chenopodiaceae

            Fresh young leaves and stems

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.         Cucurbitaceae

            Dried and cooked seeds

Cynomorium coccineum L.           Cynomoraceae

            Fleshy stem

Cyperus esculentus L.              Cyperaceae

            Tuberous roots

Diplotaxis erucoides (L.)DC                Cruciferae

            Fresh leaves and stems

Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.             Gramineae

            Grains

Eruca sativa Mill.                          Cruciferae

            Young and fresh leaves

Ficus cairica L.                  Moraceae

            Ripe fruits

Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart.               Palmae

            Fresh pericarp of the fruit

Lactuca serriola L.                  Compositae

            Young green leaves

Malva parviflora L.               Malvaceae

            Young stems and leaves

Malva verticillata L.             Malvaceae

            Fresh leaves

Mentha longifolia L.             Labiatae

            Fresh leaves

Olea europaea L.                  Oleaceae

            Ripe fruits        

Origanum syriacum L.            Labiatae

            Fresh young branches

Panicum miliaceum L.              Gramineae

            Grains

Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.           Gramineae

            The flour from the ground seeds

Phoenix dactylifera L.             Palmae

            Ripe fruits

Portulaca oleracea L.             Portulacaceae

            Fresh young branches

Ranunculus muricatus L.             Ranunculaceae

            Fresh leaves and stems

Raphanus sativus L.                   Cruciferae

            Tuberous roots

Rumex vesicarius L.              Polygonaceae

            Fresh leaves

Scorzonera papposa DC.         Compositae

            Whole plant eaten raw.

Sesamum indicum L.                Pedaliaceae

            Dried, ripe seeds

Sisymbrium irio L.                  Cruciferae

            Fresh, young leaves

Sonchus oleraceus L.            Compositae

            Tender branches

Sorghum vulgare Pers.            Gramineae

            Flour from ground seeds

Tamarindus indica L.              Papilionaceae

            Ripe fruits

Tripleurospermum auriculatum (Boiss.) Rech. f     Compositae

            Fresh leaves

Urtica pilulifera L.                      Urticaceae

            Fresh young leaves

Urtica urens L.                             Urticaceae

            Young stems and leaves

Ziziphus spina-christi    (L.) Willd.     Rhamnaceae

            Fresh, ripe fruits

 C. Aromatic Plants

(plants with aromatic foliage)

Achillea bibersteinii Afan.                                          Compositae

Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch.-Bip.             Compositae

Ambrosia maritima L.                                                 Compositae

Artemisia judaica L.                                                    Compositae

Artemisia sieberi Besser                                             Compositae

Basilicum polystachion (L.) Moench                         Labiatae

Chrysanthemum coronarium  L.                                 Compositae

Cymbopogon commutatus (Steud.) Stapf.               Gramineae

Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng.                  Gramineae

Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss.                                Umbelliferae

Lavandula spp.                                                              Labiatae

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds.                                        Labiatae

Meriandra benghalensis Benth.                                   Labiatae

Micromeria spp.                                                             Labiatae

Ocimum spp.                                                                  Labiatae

Origanum syriacum L.                                                   Labiatae

Pegolettia senegalensis Cass.                                     Compositae

Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. & Spach.                              Compositae

Pulicaria guestii Rech. F. & Rawi                                  Compositae

Pulicaria incisa (Lam.) DC.                                            Compositae

Pulicaria jauberti Gamal-Eldin                                      Compositae

Pulicaria schimperi DC.                                                 Compositae

Ruta chalepensis L.                                                        Rutaceae

Scutellaria arabica Jaub. & Spach                               Labiatae

Tagetes minuta L.                                                           Compositae

Tanacetum santolinoides (DC.)Fein. & Fer.                Compositae

Teucrium spp.                                                                 Labiatae

Thymus decussatus Benth        .                                   Labiatae

D. Ornamental Plants

(plants with attractive flowers or shoots)

Abutilon pannosum (G.Forst.) Schltdl.                     Malvaceae

Adenium arabicum Balf. f.                                          Apocynaceae

Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult                 Amaranthaceae

Ajuga arabica P. Davis                                                 Labiatae

Albuca abyssinica Dryand                                           Liliaceae

Alkanna orientalis (L.) Boiss.                                      Boraginaceae

Allium spp.                                                                     Liliaceae

Aloe spp.                                                                        Liliaceae

Amaranthus hybridus L.                                               Amaranthaceae

Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Vahl.                              Acanthaceae

Anthemis spp.                                                               Compositae

Arundo donax L.                                                            Gramineae

Asperagus spp.                                                              Liliaceae

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.                                        Liliaceae

Astragalus kahiricus DC.                                              Papilionaceae

Astragalus seiberi DC.                                                  Papilionaceae

Astripomoea malvacea (Koltz.) Meeuse                   Convolvulaceae

Barbeya oleoides  Schweinf.                                       Barbeyaceae

Buddleja polystachya Fresen.                                     Loganiaceae

Campanula spp.                                                            Campanulaceae

Caralluma spp.                                                              Asclepiadaceae

Cenchrus ciliaris L.                                                        Gramineae

Cichorium spp.                                                               Compositae

Clitoria ternatea L.                                                         Papilionaceae

Colutea istria Mill.                                                         Papilionaceae

Convolvulus arvensis L.                                                Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus oxyphyllus Boiss.                                    Convolvulaceae

Crinum album (Forssk.) Herbert                                 Amaryllidaceae

Delonix elata (L.) Gamble                                             Caesalpiniaceae

Delosperma harazianum (Defl.) Popp. & Ihl.             Aizoaceae

Desmidorchis penicillatus (Defl.) N.E. Br.                  Asclepiadaceae

Dianthus spp.                                                                Caryophyllaceae

Diplotaxis erucoides (L.)DC.                                       Cruciferae

Diplotaxis harra(Forssk.) Boiss.                                 Cruciferae

Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Poir.                                      Salvadoraceae

Dodonaea angustifolia L.f.                                          Sapindaceae

Dracaena ombet Kotschy                                            Agavaceae

Duvalia spp.                                                                   Asclepiadaceae

Ecbolium virde (Forssk.) Alston                                 Acanthaceae

Ehretia obtusifolia Hochst.                                         Boraginaceae

Ephedra aphylla Forssk.                                              Ephedraceae

Erodium glaucophyllum (L.) L’Her.                             Geraniaceae

Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.)Rchb.f.                              Orchidaceae

Euphorbia ammak Schweinf.                                      Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cactus Ehrenb.                                           Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia fractiflexa S. Carter & Wood                     Euphorbiaceae

Euroyps arabicus Steud.                                              Compositae

Ficus spp.                                                                       Moraceae

Gladiolus spp.                                                                Iridaceae

Gypsophila capillaris (Forssk.) C.Chr.                        Caryophyllaceae

Hibiscus deflersii Schweinf.                                         Malvaceae

Hibiscus vitifolius L.                                                      Malvaceae

Horwoodia dicksoniae Turill                                        Cruciferae

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Vent.) Muell.                  Violaceae        

Hypericum spp.                                                             Hypericaceae

Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart.                                     Palmae

Huernia spp.                                                                  Asclepiadaceae

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.                              Gramineae

Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl.                                Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.)Choisy                                Convolvulaceae

Iris postii Mouterde                                                      Iridaceae

Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb.                                 Iridaceae

Jasminum grandiflorum L.                                         Oleaceae

Juncus rigidus Desf.                                                    Juncaceae

Juniperus spp.                                                              Cupressaceae

Klenia pendula (Forssk.) Sch.-Bip.                             Compositae

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne                Asclepiadaceae

Limonium axillare (Forssk.) Kuntze                           Plumbaginaceae

Limonium carnosum (Boiss.) Kuntze                        Plumbaginaceae

Limonium cylindrifolium (Forssk.) Verdc.                 Plumbaginaceae

Lonicera etrusca Santi                                                 Caprifoliaceae

Matthiola longipetala (Vent) DC.                                Cruciferae

Mesembryanthemum forsskalii Boiss.                      Aizoaceae

Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori                               Moringaceae

Nicotiana glauca R. Graham                                       Solanaceae

Nuxia oppositifolia Hochst.                                         Loganiaceae

Olea europaea L.                                                           Oleaceae

Oncoba spinosa L.                                                        Flacourtiaceae

Opuntia spp.                                                                  Cactaceae

Pancratium spp.                                                            Amaryllidaceae

Pandanus odoratissimus L.                                         Pandanaceae

Pelargonium multibracteatum Hochst.                      Geraniaceae

Pennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov.                     Gramineae

Phragmites australis(Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.                Gramineae

Plumbago zeylanica L.                                                 Plumbaginaceae

Primula verticillata Forssk.                                          Primulaceae

Prunus korshinskyi Hand.-Mazz.                                Rosaceae

Rosa abyssinica Lindley                                               Rosaceae        

Rumex nervosus Vahl                                                  Polygonaceae

Rumex vesicarius L.                                                     Polygonaceae

Salix mucronata Tunb.                                                 Salicaceae

Salvia spinosa L.                                                           Labiatae

Sansevieria  ehrenbergii schwinf. ex Bak.                Agavaceae

Scabiosa palaestina L.                                                Dipsacaceae

Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf.                          Amaryllidaceae

Schimpera arabica Hochst. & Steud.                         Cruciferae

Schouwia purpurea (Forssk.) Schweinf.                   Cruciferae

Scorzonera spp.                                                           Compositae

Senecio asirensis Boulous & Wood                          Compositae

Senecio hadiensis Forssk.                                          Compositae

Senna alexandrina Mill.                                               Caesalpiniaceae

Senra incana Cav.                                                         Malvaceae

Sulcolluma shadhabana (Lavr.) Plowes                    Asclepiadaceae

Tamarix spp.                                                                 Tamaricaceae

Tephrosia nubica (Boiss.) Bak.                                   Papilionaceae  

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.                                     Papilionaceae

Trichodesma trichodesmoides (Bunge) Guerke      Boraginaceae

Tulipia biflora Pall.                                                        Liliaceae

Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. & Hook.           Compositae

Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl                                                Cruciferae

E. Important Grazing plants

Acacia spp.                                                                   Leguminosae

Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl.                              Gramineae

Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq.                           Chenopodiaceae

Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.                              Verbenaceae

Cenchrus ciliaris L.                                                       Gramineae

Centropodia forsskalii (Vahl) Cope                            Gramineae

Cornulaca arabica Botsch.                                          Chenopodiaceae

Deverra triradiata Hochst. ex Boiss                            Umbelliferae

Diptergium glaucum Decne.                                        Capparaceae

Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf                             Gramineae

Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.)Bge.                           Chenopodiaceae

Hordium murinum L.                                                     Gramineae

Horwoodia dicksoniae Turrill                                       Cruciferae

Lasiurus scindicus Henr.                                              Gramineae

Lycium shawii                                                                 Solanaceae

Panicum turgidum Forssk.                                           Gramineae

Pennisetum divisum (Gmel.) Henr.                             Gramineae

Rhanterium epapposum Oliv.                                       Compositae

Rostraria pumila (Desf.) Tzvelev                                 Gramineae

Salsola vermiculata L.                                                  Chenopodiaceae

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.                                     Gramineae

Stipa capensis Thunb.                                                  Gramineae

Stipagrostis drarii (Tackh.) de Winter                         Gramineae

Stipagrostis plumosa (L.) Munro ex T. Anders.         Gramineae

Traganum nudatum Del.                                                Chenopodiaceae

Tribulus macropterus    var. arabicus (Hosni) Thomas & Hemaid                   Zygophyllaceae

 Zygophyllum hamiense   var. mandavillei (Hadidi)Thomas & Chau.               Zygophyllaceae


Oils

Achillea spp.                                                                     Asteraceae

Moringa peregrina                                                            Moringaceae


Timber Plants

Acacia spp.                                                                        Leguminosae

Juniperus spp.                                                                  Cupressaceae

Phoenix dactylifera                                                           Arecaceae

Tamarix aphylla                                                                 Tamaricaceae

Ziziphus spina-christi                                                        Rhamnaceae


Dyes

Arnebia decumbens                                                           Boraginaceae

Arnebia tinctoria                                                                 Boraginaceae

Chrozophora tinctoria                                                        Boraginaceae

Indigofera tinctoria                                                             Leguminosae

Lawsonia inermis                                                                Lythraceae


Mats, Baskets, etc.

Dracaena ombet                                                                  Dracaenaceae

Hyphaene thebaica                                                              Aracaceae

Pheonix dactylifera                                                              Aracaceae

Phragmites australis                                                            Poaceae

Sanseveria ehrenbergii                                                        Agavaceae

Scirpus litoralis                                                                     Cyperaceae               

Typha domingensis                                                              Typhaceae